Through much of American history, especially prior to the Civil Rights Movement that peaked in the 1960s, African Americans held secondary positions in nearly every walk of life. In education, housing, business and employment, if not always by public policy then by practice, opportunities were restricted. In aviation, they were no more welcome than in the rest of society. Hiring in commercial aviation was almost non-existent prior to 1960. Those few pioneers who became aviators prior to the Civil Rights Movement did so under circumstances that are hard to imagine today.